Competitive Sharing of Religious Sites:
An International & Interdisciplinary Project

2.1: Cuzco, Peru: Church of Santo Domingo built on top of the central Inka shrine, the Qurikancha, or Temple of the Sun. The curved retaining wall of finely fitted stone is Inka. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2011.

2.2: The Republican Mosque, Derinkuyu, Turkey, from the north. Built as a Greek Orthodox Church dedicated to the Archangels, 1859-60; converted into the Republican Mosque (Cumhuriyet Camii), 1949. Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2012.

2.3: Our Lady of Livramento chapel, a Neolithic tomb transformed into a shrine to a local saint, near Évora, Portugal. Photo by Timothy D. Walker, June 2009.

2.4: Our Lady of Livramento chapel near Évora, Portugal, interior. Offerings including main local agricultural products of cork and olive oil, also wax or metal representations of body parts (e.g. leg, ear) in asking for healing, and photographs of deceased loved one. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.

2.5: St. Mary of the Mongols church, Istanbul, 13th century. The only Byzantine church still standing that was never converted into a mosque after conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Note lack of prominence of either the dome or the late 19th century bell tower. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2008.

2.6: 19th century Greek Orthodox church converted after 1974 into mosque in Tuzla, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Facing east; the frame of the iconostasis is still standing, but now marks off the women’s section of the mosque. Qibla is marked toward south-southeast by lines on the carpet, and mihrab has been constructed in south wall. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, October 2011.

2.7: 12th century St. Audoen’s Church (left) the oldest parish church in Dublin of the Church of Ireland, meets at right angles the mid-19th century St Audoen's Catholic Church (right). The older church is oriented towards the east (altar; door to west) while the newer Roman Catholic one is oriented towards the north (altar; door to south). Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2013.

2.8: The iconostasis in the Republican Mosque, Derinkuyu, Turkey (see Fig. 2.2). Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2008.

3.1: Hacı Bayram mosque and Augustus temple complex, Ankara, Turkey. The 1st century temple is on the right, 15th century mosque on the left. At their intersection is the türbe (mausoleum) of the saint, Hacı Bayram. The minaret rises from the türbe, which is highly unusual in Turkish and Balkans mosques. Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2010.

3.2: Intersections of Hacı Bayram türbe and mosque with Augustus temple, 2010. Lower structure on left is side wall of türbe, extending light-colored wall of temple. The roof of the mosque intersects temple wall. The mosque’s qibla faces the türbe of Hacı Bayram. Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir.

3.3: An early 20th century photograph of Hacıbayram mosque, taken from the main road leading to the complex. Notice that the temple is an integral part of the complex, enclosed in a wall that runs in front of the türbe of Hacıbayram, The second türbe to the right has its own enclosure wall, separating it from the rest of the complex, with a small street in front of Hacıbayram complex. The neighbourhood is densely built with wooden houses. Photo by W. Zorn, negative inv. no. KB28826, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul. Used by permission.

3.4: The Byzantine mosque in Trilye, Turkey, 8th century Byzantine church, converted into a mosque in 16th century. Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2007.

4.1: Madhi, Maharashra, India, shrine of Kanifnath, March 1976. Photo by Günther-Dietz Sontheimer, copyright Südasien-Institut Universität Heidelberg; used by permission.

4.2: Madhi, Maharashra, India, shrine of Kanifnath, March 2013. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.3: Dome at Kanifnath/ Shah Ramzan shrine, Madhi, March 1976; dome is colored green and has crescent on top. Photo by Günther-Dietz Sontheimer, copyright Südasien-Institut Universität Heidelberg; used by permission.

4.4: Madhi shrine dome, March 1992. Dome is orange and crescent has been exchanged for more ambiguous symbol at top; orange flags are being brought to touch dome. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.5: Madhi shrine dome, March 2013. Dome has multiple colors, trident (triśul) on top, and inclusion of Hindu saint figures in the posts on the corners, not present in 1992. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.6: Flags offerings at Madhi, March 1992. Note crescent tops of flagpoles. Both green and orange flags are brought, some on the same pole. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.7: the “roofless mosque” at Madhi, 1927, from court documents. The building resembles closely a similar structure at the Kanifnath shrine at Miri and was oriented in the direction of Mecca. While it was still standing in 1976, by 2013 it had been replaced by a temple to the nav nath saints.

4.8: Dome over main shrine at Madhi, March 2013; in 1976 and 1992 it had been shaped like the smaller dome next to it, but was rebuilt in a distinctively Hindu style, topped by triśul. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.9: Roofless mosque at base of hill, beneath main shrine at Madhi, March 2013; note that there are no minarets but the loudspeakers used to call for the call to prayer are on low pillars. Effectively, the roofless mosque at the main shrine (see Fig. 4.7) was displaced below the hill. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

4.10: Gate to village Miri, March 2013; the text announces the presence of the Kanifnath temple (mandir) and shows exclusively Hindu imagery. Photo by Robert M. Hayden.

5.1: Mértola, Portugal, viewed from the southeast. Built on a rocky promontory where the Guadiana River meets a tributary at its northernmost navigable point, Mértola was easily defensible. Visible fortifications date from the Roman, “Moorish,” and post-Reconquesta periods. For centuries the town was a focal point for trade between the interior of the Iberian Peninsula and the entire Mediterranean basin. Attribution: Photo “Mértola castle and town in Portugal” by Miguel Vieira, 2007; access: Wikimedia Commons (English Language), licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic.

5.2: View of Mértola drawn by Duarte de Armas, from the manuscript ‘Livro das Fortalezas,’ commissioned by King Manuel I of Portugal and executed in 1509-1510. Note that, at the time of the drawing, the church retained its original five-peaked roof, dating from its initial construction as a mosque in the twelfth century, as well as the slender minaret, modified as a bell tower, on the building’s northwest corner. This drawing may be compared with Fig. 5.1, a 2007 photograph taken from the same perspective. Attribution: National Archives of Portugal (Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo); Códices e documentos de proveniência desconhecida, Casa Forte, nr. 159. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

5.3: Mértola, Portugal, 12th century mosque, since 13th century the Igreja Matriz (Mother Church), seen from the approach ramp to the main gate of the castle keep. Note that the five-peaked mosque roof has been replaced (gothic stone vaults now form the interior ceiling), a stout bell tower adorns the building’s southeast corner, and the main entrance is now on the southern wall. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.

5.4: Mértola, interior view of the Mértola church/mosque; eastern wall, showing mihrab with table and statue of Our Lady of Snows in front of it. Since the Reconquista and conversion to a Roman Catholic church. The mihrab was rediscovered only in the late twentieth century, during renovations of the nave; however, during the centuries since the conversion the main altar of the church has moved several times, at times to the north, at times in front of the (covered) mihrab to the east. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.

5.5: St. Nicholas Church, Chania, Crete, 14th Venetian Century Catholic church, converted into a mosque by Ottomans in 1645, then into a Greek Orthodox Church in 1918; note minaret and bell tower. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2015.

5.6: Bayrakli mosque, Belgrade. Built in 1690 and the only remaining Ottoman mosque in the city after 1900. The mosque is set back from the street and lower than surrounding buildings, thus hard to see until one is right in front of it – even the minaret is lower than neighboring structures. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, July 2010.

5.7: Chinchero, Peru. Spanish colonial church on top of Inka shrine complex, as seen from Inka main plaza. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2013.

5.8: Chinchero: church on right, the ruler’s viewing platform is marked, above the corner where Inka walls meet. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2013.

5.9: Chinchero site map

5.10: Chinchero: church viewed from Spanish plaza. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2013. There is a heavily rebuilt Inka wall in from of the church, but the main door is to this plaza and not towards the main Inka plaza, to the left. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, May 2013.

5.11: Goa, India: Concentration of churches at Old Goa (the former Portuguese colonial capital) along the Mandovi River, viewed from Nossa Senhora do Monte hill. The Holy See (center) is the largest church in Asia. 360º sight-lines command all strategic approaches, especially from the sea; signaling was possible from Nossa Senhora do Monte to the Aguada Fortress at the Mandovi River mouth. Photo by Timothy Walker, January 2009.

6.1: The Pelourinho Novo (Municipal Pillory) of Old Goa, a fundamental symbol of state authority, constructed with pieces of two indigenous stone pillars expropriated from a demolished Hindu temple site; late sixteenth or early seventeenth century. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, January 2009.

6.2: Stambh (pillar) at the Mahalaxmi temple at Bandora, Ponda, in the “New Conquests” region of Goa. This pillar displays striking stylistic similarities to the appropriated temple pillar components that the Portuguese used to construct the Pelourinho Novo in Old Goa. Photo by Timothy Walker, January 2009.

6.3: Statue of Saint Catherine (early seventeenth century), Viceroy’s Gate, Old Goa. Saint Catherine is depicted with a crown and scepter, symbols of sovereign Portuguese power, standing triumphantly on the back of a vanquished Muslim ruler. Her physical domination of the infidel is made all the more caustic because it depicts the subjugation of a South Asian Muslim male by a European Roman Catholic female. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, January 2009.

6.4: North India: idol of goddess Chamunda devi, transformed from older statue taken from archaeological collection, front view. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, January 2009.

6.5: North India: idol of goddess Chamunda devi, transformed from older statue taken from archaeological collection, side view, showing original snake images. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, January 2009.

7.1: Augustus Temple surrounded by houses in the early 20th century.. Negative inv. no. 3193, courtesy of Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul.

7.2: Muslim tomb-stones and classical remains arranged and displayed in what would have been the apse and altar area at the time when the Temple of Augustus was converted and used as a Byzantine church. Photo was taken during the archaeological excavations at the site. Photo by M. Schede, 1926; negative R29278, courtesy of Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul.

7.3: Truck and heavy machinery in operation inside the cella of the Augustus temple during reconstruction of the site. Photograph by Damla Tonuk, 2010.

7.4 Comparative views of the Temple of Augustus showing changes to the site over nearly 70 years. Photo 7.4 was taken in 1945, two decades after the excavations, and shows that the area around the temple was cleared of the wooden houses abutting the southern wall of the temple, and was enclosed in a fence defining it as an archaeological site. Photo 7.5 shows a series of fountains that were placed in this area in 2013, following an extensive and controversial restoration and urban renewal project at the site. Photo 7.4 by A. Eckstein, 1945, inv. no. KB12084, courtesy of Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul. Photo 7.5 by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2013.

7.5: Comparative views of the Temple of Augustus showing changes to the site over nearly 70 years. Photo 7.4 was taken in 1945, two decades after the excavations, and shows that the area around the temple was cleared of the wooden houses abutting the southern wall of the temple, and was enclosed in a fence defining it as an archaeological site. Photo 7.5 shows a series of fountains that were placed in this area in 2013, following an extensive and controversial restoration and urban renewal project at the site. Photo 7.4 by A. Eckstein, 1945, inv. no. KB12084, courtesy of Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Istanbul. Photo 7.5 by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2013.

7.6: A young Muslim woman posing for wedding engagement photo shoot, in the courtyard of the Hacıbayram mosgue; Augustus temple as background. On the ground, one can see the places allotted for Friday prayers, during which time the mosque is usually full and there is a significant overflow into the courtyard. Photo by Tuğba Tanyeri-Erdemir, 2013.

7.7: “Synagogue”, museum in the former Judiaria, the Jewish ghetto of Castelo de Vide, Portugal. In fact, the archaeologists who investigated the site acknowledge uncertainty that this particular building was the synagogue. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.

7.8: Plaque with comments of President of Portugal made at opening of Jewish museum in Castelo de Vide, 17 March 1989. Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.

7.9: Moura, Portugal: small museum in the former mouraria, the Muslim ghetto after the Reconquest; the sign on the door says Poço Arábe -- literally "Arab Well." Compare to the Judiaria commemorations in Figures 7.6 and 7.7. Tellingly, the name of the town, Moura, means “Moorish woman.” Photo by Robert M. Hayden, June 2009.